1.10. Impacts of water use conflict on people’s livelihood
Table.4.7. Impacts of water use conflict on peoples’ livelihood assets.
A: Sub villages by Impacts of conflict on Human capital assets (percentage)
Sub village
Failure of children to attend schools
Loss of earnings (properties)
Failure to get health services
Raw total
Malambo
54.54
8.17
2.7
65.41
Olchorro
10.1
2.72
0.9
13.72
Manang
13.63
5.44
1.8
20.87
Total
78.27
16.33
5.4
100
B:Sub Village by Impacts of conflict on Natural capital assets (percentage)
Sub-village
Loss of range resources
Environmental destruction
Change of land use
Others
Raw total
Malambo
27.3
18.2
10.9
9.1
65.5
Olchorro
5.5
3.6
2.7
1.8
13.6
Manang
7.3
3.6
5.5
4.5
20.9
Column total
39.8
25.4
19.1
15.4
100
C: Sub village by Impacts of conflict on Social capital assets (percentage)
Sub-village
Change of culture
Disunity
Others
Raw total
Malambo
55.54
8.17
1.7
65.41
Olchorro
10
2.82
0.9
13.72
Manang
11.63
7.44
1.8
20.87
Column total
77.17
18.43
4.4
100
D:Sub-village by Impacts of conflict on Financial capital assets (Percentages)
Sub-village
Lack of markets
Loss of foods
Lack of credits
Others
Raw total
Malambo
36.4
14
9
6.4
65.8
Olchorro
9.1
0.9
2.7
0.9
13.6
Manang
13.4
2.7
3.6
0.9
20.6
Colum total
58.9
17.6
15.3
8.2
100
Source: Malambo Survey, 2009.
4.10.2.1. Human capital
According to Scoones, (1998) human capital includes skills, knowledge, ability to labour and good health important to the ability to pursue different livelihood strategies. Tanzania Government developed a policy vision of 2025 as a road map to improve the life standard of all Tanzania citizens. And achieve the Millennium Development Goals like to achieve universal primary school education, reduces child mortality and combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases (CRT and TNRF, 2007).
Level of education in any society determine or influence skills, knowledge, and ability of an individual or group of people to pursue or adapt to external and internal stresses. The number of households with formal education in study area is very low and therefore lack of skills and knowledge to external (global) changes (See figure.4.3).
The results (Table.4.7A) shows that 78.27% of respondents substantiated water use conflict in studied area has resulted into failure of their children to attend schools. This means that when conflict occurs their children will not go to schools but remain in bomas and take care of livestock and sometimes do not go back to school after conflict ends. Therefore new skills, knowledge and ability to labour to pursue different livelihood strategies are limited hence affects their livelihood.
Moreover, Results shows that 16.33% of respondents said that conflict has resulted to loss of their properties (See table 4.7A). When conflict break out livestock, houses, and other properties are either taken or burnt. While 5.4% of respondent confirmed that conflict has led to local community fail to access health services. The distribution of health services is inadequate in studied area where there is only one dispensary in the whole ward therefore people had to go to other wards like Sale, Digodigo and Wasso but when conflict arise then their access to health services become limited since they have to cross their rivalry wards. Therefore conflict has affected their livelihoods through restriction of health services.
4.10.2.2. Natural capital
State encroachment has often been in the form of the establishment of national parks and game reserves on traditional pastoral lands, and the subsequent exclusion of pastoralists. The expansion of small scale and commercial cultivation has also resulted in a loss of range resources (Parkipuny, 1987). The majority of households interviewed are the victims of eviction from Serengeti National Park and they have been squeezed to less productive semi arid areas and very small compared to the growing population. Population growth, livestock growth and wildlife mobility from Serengeti ecosystem have led to depletion of good pasture which in turn changed the past pastoralist range management system. 39.8 % of household confirmed that causes of conflict like population growth, livestock growth and government policies have resulted into loss of range resources due to loss of grazing land for national parks or game reserved (See table 4.7B). The Maasai have their own range management system where pastures are categorized according to livestock ability to follow water and pastures. The calves, old cattle are grazed in reserved areas (olokeri or ilalilia) which are divided according to customary rights of each sub location (ingutot) while healthier herds are grazed in public or village lands.
Environmental destruction: As mobile animal husbandry is a productive and environmentally friendly land use system in arid areas. Recognizing that pastoralists’ techniques represent a ‘realisation of the full potential’ of natural resources, and that nomadic pastoralism is a highly evolved ecological response to seasonally scarce resources, it should be protected and promoted as a sound and well-adapted eco-social system of livelihoods and the husbanding of natural resources. The consequences (Table.4.7B) reveal that 25.4% of respondents affirmed that environmental destruction in their areas is due to government role to restrict them from using dry-lands grazing patterns and therefore had to use only village lands, environment is also degraded by wildebeest, and farming activities in the area because their system of moving with livestock to other areas is more environmental friendly unlike clearance of forest for crop cultivation. Pastoralist depend much on environment in getting medicine for treatment of human and livestock diseases, and therefore forest products define their livelihoods but with the increasing of cultivation activities forest products as medicine has disappeared due to cultivation activities which consecutively affected pastoral livelihood. Plate .4.10. Shows how clearance of forest for cultivation has been unfriendly to the environment and also Maasai means of livelihood which is among others defined by the environmental resources is being deprived.
Plate.4.10. Clearence of Olchorro grazing forest (Endim) land for cultivation.
Source: Malambo Survey, 2009.
Change of land use: Water use conflict in the area has resulted to change of land use (See Table.4.7B), the land is mostly utilized by pastoralist but as time goes the increase of livestock diseases, population growth and livestock mobility have led to change of peoples’ perception from pastoralist to agro pastoralist. Conflict is caused by invasion of Sonjo agropastoralist to Olchorro forest and clear for cultivation, household affirmed that if the government will not intervene the situation then they will also start cultivation. Also among of the economic activites practiced in the area is crop cultivation in Ng’abolo valley (See Plate.4.5).
Likewise, the results (Table.4.7B) shows that water use conflict have other impacts to people’s livelihoods apart from change of land use, environmental destruction, and loss of range resources. These are loss of biological diversity and wildlife. About 15.4% of respondent said water use conflict has resulted into loss of biodiversity and wildlife which were available in the area; it is caused by clearance of forest for cultivation.
4.10.2.3. Social capital
Water use conflict has affected social dimensions of peoples’ livelihoods in the studied area. Among of the impacts of conflict to people’s social life as pointed by respondents (Table.4.7C) were change of culture, and disunity among households. The result shows that 77.17% of respondent confirmed that water conflict has resulted into change of culture (See Table 4.8C). Migration of youth to urban areas and introduction of policies has influenced change of culture where those who migrated to urban areas adopted new ways of life as opposed to traditional ways. Also, conflict has led to introduction of new ways of solving conflict which were not used before, for example the presence of third part that’s NGOs and CBOs in solving conflict. Before that conflicts were only solved by traditional leaders from two parties in conflict but now a third part is included.
Moreover, 18.43% of respondents affirmed that conflict has resulted to loss of trust or disunity among local communities. Respondents corroborated that before conflict rise up they had trust and people lived with harmony but now local communities do not trust each other. Everyone fear the other e.g local communities fear park wardens and Maasai and Sonjo do not trust each other. And traditional system of sharing resources among age set has changed, morans used to walk in groups and no one is allowed to eat food along but with interaction to wider system which they adopted in town has changed their life (Kweka, 1999).While 4.4% of respondent said that conflict has resulted to increase of network where pastoralist have been interacting with non pastoralist in town and therefore increased network.
4.10.2.4. Financial capital
The results (Table.4.7D) show that conflict had implication to peoples’ livelihood mostly in terms of financial capital. Where among of the mentioned impacts were lack of markets (58.9%), loss of food (17.6%), and lack of credits (15.3%).
Impacts of Conflict in the studied area has resulted to unsettled community which do not involve in production activities together and therefore lack of markets (See Table.4.7D) where no more organization of how, where and when to sell their products. Also 17.6% of respondent said that conflict has resulted to loss of food. Since conflict have resulted to death of livestock, migration of livestock, poor market and migration of youth (labour power) to urban areas may be the reasons for lack of enough food hence NGOs like Oxfarm and Help for the Maasai had to distribute maize grains to people.
Moreover, results (Table 4.7D) reveal that 15.3% of respondent affirmed that conflict has resulted to lack of credits. The area is very remote and has no either mobile network no good transport and therefore access to either livestock medicine provided by the government and NGOs or other subsidies are not present in the area, conflict has created a fear situation to government bodies and NGOs therefore failed to provide credits.
